References
Anderson, J.L., 1984: Use and Interpretation of Isentropic Analysis.
NOAA Technical Memorandum, NWS WR-188, 40pp.
Auer, A.H., Jr., and J.M. White, 1982: The Combined Role
of Kinematics, Thermodynamics and Cloud Physics Associated with Heavy
Snowfall Episodes. Journal of the Meteorological Society of
Japan, 60(1), 500-507.
Bannitt, J. L., 1999: Analysis of elevated convection over east upper Michigan on
October 7-8, 1993: The role of frontogenetical forcing and moist symmetric instability.
NWS, Central Region Headquarters, Scientific Services Division, Applied Research Paper 21-07.
Baumgardt, D., 1999: Precipitation type forecasting: The top-down approach.
Oral presentation, NWS Winter Weather Workshop, Dousman, Wisconsin.
http://www.crh.noaa.gov/arx/micrope.html.
Beckman, S.K. 1987: Use of enhanced IR/visible imagery to determine heavy snow areas.
Monthly Weather Review, 115, 2060-2087.
Bennetts, D.A., and B.J. Hoskins, 1979: Conditional
symmetric instability--A possible explanation for frontal rainbands.
Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 105, 945-962.
Browne, R.F., and R.J. Younkin, 1970: Some
Relationships Between 850-millibar Lows and Heavy Snow Occurrences over
the Central and Eastern United States. Monthly Weather Review,
98(5), 399-401.
Chaston, P., 1989: The Magic Chart for Forecasting
Snow Amounts. National Weather Digest, 14(1) 20-22.
Clark, J. H. E., and D. J. Nicosia, 1999: Mesoscale snowband formation in
extratropical cyclones. Preprint 8th Conf. on Mesoscale Processes, Boulder, CO,
Amer. Meteor. Soc., 176-177.
Cobb, H. D., and W. F. Albright, 1996: The use of new forecast techniques to diagnose two heavy snow events at the Wakefield NWSO - 8 February 1995 and 7 December 1995. Preprint 15th Conf. on Wea. Analysis and Forecasting, Norfolk, VA, Amer. Meteor. Soc.
Cook, B. J., 1980: A snow index using 200mb warm advection.
Nat. Wea. Dig., 5, 29-40.
Cope, A. M., 1996: Evaluation of an empirical method for estimating snowfall amounts using gridded model output. Preprint 15th
Conf. on Wea. Analysis and Forecasting, Norfolk, VA, Amer. Meteor. Soc.
Czys, R. R., R. W. Scott, K. C. Tang, R. W. Przybylinski, and
M. E. Sabones, 1996: A physically based, nondimensional parameter for discriminating between locations of freezing rain and ice pellets. Wea. Forecasting, 11, 591-598.
Doswell, C. A. III, 1987: The distinction between large-scale
and mesoscale contribution to severe convection: A case study example.
Wea. Forecasting, 2, 3-16.
Doswell, C. A. III, H. E. Brooks, and R. A. Maddox, 1996:
Flash flood forecasting: An ingredients-based methodology. Wea. Forecasting, 11, 560-581.
Eliassen, A., 1962: On the vertical circulation in frontal zones, V. Bjerknes
Cent. Vol. Geofys. Publikasjoner, Norske Videnskaps-Akad., Oslo, 24, 147-160.
Friday, E. W., 1997: National Weather Service handbook no. 7 part IV, Supplemental Observations. DOC, NOAA, NWS Office of Meteorology, Silver
Springs, MD, 57pp.
Funk, T. W., C.W. Hayes, M.B. Scholz, K.A. Kostura, 1995:
Vertical Motion Forcing Mechanisms Responsible for the Production of a
Mesoscale Very Heavy Snow Band. Preprints, 14th Conference on
Weather Analysis and Forecasting, Dallas, TX, AMS, 176-181.
Garcia, C., Jr., 1994: Forecasting snowfall using mixing ratios on an isentropic surface - an empirical study. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NWS CR-105. U. S. Department of Commerce, NOAA/NWS, 31 pp.
Garcia, C., Jr., 2000: Forecasting snowfall using mixing ratios on an isentropic surface: an update. NWS Technical Memorandum CR-116.
Gerard, A., C. Mead, S. Miller, R. Pfost, and P. Wolf, 1998:
Surprise snow storm socks Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama. NWS, Southern
Region Headquarters, Scientific Services Division, Technical Attachment
98-5, 8pp.
Gordon, J. D., 1998: A comprehensive winter weather forecast
checklist. NWS, Central Region Headquarters, Scientific Services Division,
Applied Research Paper 18-08, 59-66.
http://www.crh.noaa.gov/techpapers/arp18/18-08.html
Goree, P. A., and R. J. Younkin: Synoptic climatology of heavy snowfall
over the central and eastern United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 94, 663-668.
Haase, J. D., 1996: Summary for ninth significant winter event --
January 23, 1996. NWSFO Dousman, Wisconsin, internal publication.
Haase, J. D., 1997: Summary for thirteenth significant winter event --
March 13-14, 1997. NWSFO Dousman, Wisconsin, internal publication.
Holsten, T. E., and T. Hendricks, 1997: A forecast overview of
the 26 January 1996 blizzard across eastern Iowa and northwest Illinois using
PCGRIDDS and non-standard forecast techniques. NWS, Central Region Headquarters, Scientific Services Division, Applied Research Paper 18-10,
75-90.
http://www.crh.noaa.gov/techpapers/arp18/18-10.html
Holton, J. R., 1992: An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. 3rd ed., Academic Press,
511 pp.
Hoskins, B. J., I. Draghici, and H. C. Davies, 1978: A new look at the
omega-equation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 104, 31-38.
Huschke, R. E., Ed., 1959: Glossary of Meteorology. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 638 pp.
Jacobson, H. L., Sanders, R. A., and Hanson, D. L., 1956: The
central high plains storm of November 1-3, 1956. Mon. Wea. Rev., November 1956, 401-414.
Johns, R. H., and C. A. Doswell III, 1992: Severe local storms
forecasting. Wea. Forecasting, 7, 588-612.
Johnston, E.C., 1995: Updated Satellite Technique to
Forecast Heavy Snow. Weather and Forecasting, 10, 219-228.
Knight, D. J., and P. V. Hobbs, 1988: The mesoscale and microscale structure and organization of clouds and precipitation in midlatitude cyclones. Part XV: A numerical modeling study of frontogenesis
and cold-frontal rainbands. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 915-930.
Lundstedt, W., 1992: WINDEX -- A method to forecast wintertime instability
and non-lake effect snow squalls across New England. NWSFO Nashua, New Hampshire, internal
publication.
Martin, J.E., 1998a: Quasi-Geostrophic Forcing of Ascent in the Occluded Sector of
Cyclones and the Trowal Airstream. Monthly Weather Review.
Martin, J.E., 1998b: The Structure and Evolution of a Continental
Winter Cyclone. Part II: Frontal Forcing of an Exreme Snow Event. Monthly Weather
Review, 126, 329-348.
Martin, J. E., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 1992: Organization and structure of clouds
and precipitation on the mid-atlantic
coast of the United States. Part V: The role of an upper-level front in the
generation of a rainband. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 1293-1303.
McCann, D. W., 1995: Three-dimensional computations of
equivalent potential vorticity. Wea. Forecasting, 10, 798-802.
McCann, D. W., 1999: Comments on ``Evaluation and application
of conditional symmetric instability, equivalent potential vorticity, and
frontogenetic forcing in an operational forecast environment.'' Wea.
Forecasting, 14, 470-472.
McNulty, R. P., 1978: On upper tropospheric kinematics and severe weather occurrence. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 662-672.
McNulty, R. P., 1988: Winter precipitation type. CR Technical Attachment 88-4. DOC/NOAA/NWS Central Region, Kansas City, MO, 9pp.
McNulty, R. P., 1995: Severe and convective weather: A
Central Region forecasting challenge. Wea. Forecasting, 10, 187-202.
Moore, J. T., and T. E. Lambert, 1993: The use of equivalent
potential vorticity to diagnose regions of conditional symmetric instability.
Wea. Forecasting, 8, 301-308.
Moore, J.T., 1988: Isentropic Analysis and Interpretation: Operational
Applications to Synoptic and Mesoscale Forecast Problems. St.
Louis University, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, St.
Louis, MO, 116 pp.
[also 1989: Isentropic analysis and Interpretation. DOC/NOAA/NWS
Training Center, Kansas City, MO, 84 pp.]
Morrison, A.L., 1989: width of snow band using IR. CR Technical
Attachment 89-10.
Mossop, S.C., 1970: Concentrations of ice crystals in clouds.
Bull. Am. Meteor. Soc., 51, 474-479.
Nicosia, D. J., and R. H. Grumm, 1999: Mesoscale band formation in three major northeastern United States snowstorms. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 346-368.
Nietfeld, D. D., and D. A. Kennedy, 1998: Forecasting
snowfall amounts: An ingredients-based methodology supporting the Garcia Method.
Preprint 16th Conf. on Wea. Analysis and Forecasting, Phoenix, AZ, Amer. Meteor. Soc.
Penn, S., 1957: The prediction of snow v. rain. Forecasting
Guide No. 2, U.S. Weather Bureau, 29 pp.
Reap, R.M., 1992: The Techniques Development Laboratory
Three-Dimensional Trajectory Model. NWS Technical Procedures
Bulletin, 397, 11pp.
Reap, R. M., 1990: Forecasting snow amounts from net vertical
displacements. NWS Tech. Proced. Bull., 389, 1-4.
Rogers, R.R., and M.K. Yau: A Short Course in Cloud Physics. Pergammon Press, New York, 293 pp.
Sangster, W. E., and E. C. Jagler, 1985: The (7WG, 8WT) ``Magic'' Chart.
CR Technical Attachment 85-1. DOC/NOAA/NWS Central Region, Kansas City, MO, 5pp.
Schultz, D. M., and P. N. Schumacher, 1999: The use and misuse of conditional symetric instability. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 2709-2732.
Scofield, R.A., and L.E. Spayd, Jr., 1984: snowfall estimates based on
satellite imagery. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NESDIS 8,
Washington, D.C., 51pp.
Shea, T. J., and R. W. Przybylinski, 1995: Forecasting
the Northern Extent of Significant Snowfall in a Major Winter Storm: An
Operational Forecasting Problem. Preprints, 14th Conference on
Weather Analysis and Forecasting, Dallas, TX, AMS, 280-285.
Snook, J. S., 1992: Current techniques for real-time evaluation of conditional symmetric instability. Wea. Forecasting, 7, 430-439.
Stewart, R. E., 1985: Precipitation types in winter storms.
Pure Appl. Geophys., 123, 597-609.
Stewart, R. E., and P. King, 1987: Freezing precipitation
in winter storms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 1270-1279.
Sutcliffe, R. C., 1947: A contribution to the problem of development.
Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 73, 370-383.
Trenberth, K. E., 1978: On the interpretation of the diagnostic
quasi-geostrophic omega equation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 131-137.
Thorpe, A. J., and S. A. Clough, 1991: Mesoscale dynamics of cold fronts: Structures described by dropsoundings in FRONTS 87. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 117, 903-941.
Tripoli G. J., 1992: A nonhydrostatic model designed to simulate scale interaction. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 1342-1359.
Tripoli, G.J., 1992: An explicit three-dimensional
nonhydrostatic numerical simulation of a tropical cyclone. Meteor.
Atmos. Phys., 49, 229-254.
Uccellini, L.W., 1976: Operational Diagnostic Applications of Isentropic
Analysis. National Weather Digest, 1, 4-12.
Wallace, J. M., and P. V. Hobbs, 1977: Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey. Academic Press.
Weismueller, J. L., and S. M. Zubrick, 1998: Evaluation and application of conditional
symmetric instability, equivalent potential vorticity, and frontogenetical forcing in an operational forecasting environment. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 84-101.
Wetzel, S.W., and J.E. Martin, 2001: An operational ingredients-based methodology for forecasting
mid-latitude winter season precipitation. Weather and Forecasting, 16, 156-167.
View the paper as: pdf or online text
Wetzel, S. W., 2000: Investigation of the Dynamical and Thermodynamical Ingredients
for Mid-Latitude Winter Season Precipitation. M.S. Thesis, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, 158pp.
Return to Winter Forecast Ingredients Page